"SPEECH DEVELOPMENT 



tf 



"A thesis presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of 
the University of Pennsylvania in partial fulfil- 
ment of the requirements for the 
degree of Doctor of 
Philosophy. " 



By 
HERBEKT BALDWIN MOVER 



December, 1911. 



STAR AND WAVE PRESS 



"SPEECH DEVELOPMENT 



"A thesis presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of 
the University of Pennsylvania in partial fulfil- 
ment of the requirements for the 
degree of Doctor of 
Philosophy." 



By 
HERBEPnT BALDWIN MOVER 



December, 1911. 



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Introduction 

This thesis is a record of the observations of and experiments 
made on E. D. G. M., the writer's daughter, as a subject, and an 
attempt to show the development of speech and to digest the 
material into pedagogically interesting and instructive conclusions. 

The record extends over a period of more than five years, 
beginiiing about March, 1903, the ninth month, and ending June 
24, 1908, at the completion of the sixth year. 

Several gaps occur in the records, caused by the absence of G. 
from home. Not until November, 1904, did the idea occur of 
working this subject into a thesis. After this date there occurs 
a gap of only one month, August, 1907. 

Such studies as this have frequently been made by various 
observers; usually, however, they did not continue their observa- 
tions beyond the third year (29:133), perhaps because of the great 
labor involved (73:62.) This thesis was planned to ascertain 
the vocabulary at the end of the sixth year, when school life 
usually begins, and to show the stages in development. 

A table is arranged to show the increase each month in total 
vocabulary, parts of speech, etc. From this is arranged a chart, 
on which curves are plotted showing graphically the growth of 
the several parts of speech. 

The enunciation of G. shows a gradual development and 
improvement up to about the thirtieth montli. After the thirty- 
sixth month a marked deterioration begins, lasting throughout the 
period of the observations (8:156). This deterioration became 
especially noticeable when G. began to attend the Kindergarten. 
Adenoids, which were removed in the eighty-first month, may have 
played an important part in this deterioration. 

The vocabulary is largely concrete, as indicated by the pre- 
ponderance of nouns, which comprise most of the early words 



INTEODTJCTION. 

(48:120). However, abstract terms are used intelligently, es- 
pecially toward the latter part of the period observed (19:364). 

The method of determining the vocabulary (33:5), was to 
record only those words used spontaneously by G. (11:106), 
rejecting all those due to immediate imitation (7:905). When a 
word has been intelligently used several times, it probably becomes 
a permanent part of the vocabulary. If this is so, the method of 
counting only those words used by the child during the last month 
of the period observed would secure only a small fraction of the 
true vocabulary. 

Experiment has been added to observation, and means have 
been taken to test the vocabulary. For example: If an object 
is shown to the child and she gives its name, tliat word is added' to 
the vocabulary. 

Of the words in the vocabulary, a large proportion are in 
frequent use, as shown by the repetitions recorded ; some have been 
used only occasionally; while some have possibly dropped out of 
the vocabulary, though this would be difificult to ascertain. 

Various classifications of the steps in speech development have 
been proposed (2:484). The babbling period occupies the first 
few months, usually at least six, and often more. This period has 
been carefully studied by observers of many nationalities (14:328). 
The order of appearance of the various sounds depends somewhat 
on the language. The babbling period is not considered here, as 
these observations commenced with the beginning of articulate 
speech. (2:485). 

"Without the use of shorthand, which was not available, it 
would be impossible to secure anything like a complete record when 
the child would talk rapidly for some time, as she often did. 
From fifteen to thirty minutes a day were frequently devoted to 
making the records, though on many days, for various reasons, it 
was impossible to make any record. 



PART I. 

Chronological Record. 

There follows a record by months of some observations which 
seemed of interest as they were recorded (39:122). All quotations 
consist of words, phrases or sentences used by G. 

MARCH, 1903; NINTH MONTH. 

Many sounds and combinations were uttered this month. Of 
these, some doubtless were attempts to use words, but only two 
were recorded as words, "ha"=hark; "tid"=kid. These were so 
frequently and appropriately used that they seemed unquestion- 
able. A young child does not talk, not only because it has undevel- 
oped speech organs, but because it has no ideas to express (83 :111). 
As ideas are acquired, some means of expression are simultaneously 
developed. 

APRIL, 1903; TENTH MONTH 

During this month, if not before, sounds very like "mamma" 
and "papa" were made (10:460), (3:15j. Other words recorded 
are ' ' meow ", " wow-wow ' ' = bow-wow, ' ' day-day ' ' and ' ' aya ' ', 
both of the last two forms used in salutation or farewell. 

JVNE, 1903; TWELFTH MONTH. 

The first distinctly well articulated word positively recognized 
was "pretty." It was used constantly during this month and 
probably before. The meaning is uncertain. In some cases it 
seems to be an adjective, in others, merely an expletive. 



SPEECH DEVELOPMENT. 

Tracy (83:114) considers the second six months a period of 
marked advance in vocalization, though the actual articulate 
vocabulary is usually small. G. is not so precocious as some other 
children observed at this time. 

JULY, 1903; THIRTEENTH MONTH. 

Seventeen new words are recorded: Those which seem to be 
nouns are, "boo" == shoe, " lemne " = lemon, "toe," "car," 
" bee " = bread; exclamations are, "boo," used to frighten some 
one, "ah," "choo-choo," "atie," meaning unknown, "all gone," 
"a duie"^all dirty, rudimentary sentences; adverbs, "up," 
"now," "no;" verbs, "wock" = rock, "tee" == peep. 

AUGUST, 1903; FOURTEENTH MONTH. 

In these early months it is impossible to classify all words 
used into definite parts of speech. Some words, as kitty, book, 
etc., are certainly nouns ; home may be a noun or an adverb, proba- 
bly the latter; burn burn may be the thing that burns or the act 
of burning, and is certainly used in both ways; pad is either the 
act of clapping the hands together, or the hands themselves. The 
words are roots, capable of a variety of meanings. Yet it is 
necessary to make some classification in doubtful cases, while in a 
few, which are unmistakable, the same root is counted in each class. 

The nouns are: "kitty", "cracker", "tata", (potato) 
"mia", (milk) ; "dawe", (dolly) ; "piece", "men", "mi", (pin) 
"co", (coal); "bock", (block); "eye", "book", "flag", (flag) 
"bopple", (bottle) ; "Neenie", (Jeannie). The verbs are 
"diddle", (tickle) ; "burn burn", "pad", "wash", "close". The 
adverbs are "down", "back", "home". The exclamations are 
"ow", "please", "wee wee", "aboo." 

DECEMBER, 1903; EIGHTEENTH MONTH 

A gap occurs here in the records, lasting three months. Dur- 
ing this time G. was learning to talk very rapidly, and some of the 



CHRONOLOGICAL RECORD. 

words credited to the next few months no doubt were used during 
this time. Not only does the number of words increase, but the 
enunciation and the precision with which they are used are 
noticeably improved. 

In December are recorded the first successful attempts to 
form sentences, as, "Papa go 'cool," (school) : "Rain, go 'way"; 
"Doggie cryin' "; (imitating the whine of a dog) ; "Chickie says 
'peep peep'"; "arm cut cut"; "Pretty no" (snow); "Burn 
burn" (hurt). 

Buckman (6:800) says that the dropping of initial s before 
a consonant, as "no" for "snow", is very common in Teutaryan 
languages. 

Forty-one new words are credited to December. Some 
peculiarities are "bap" = cap; "num" = thumb; "maraa" = 
grandma ; ' * tock ' ' = clock ; ' ' nannie ' ' = candy. Other mispro- 
nunciations no doubt occurred, but were not recorded. 

A rather interesting incident occurred this month in connection 
with snow. When the first snow of the winter fell, G. admired it 
very much, so some was brought in the house on a plate. She 
would not touch the snow, however, and when urged to do so, she 
put her hands behind her back and said "burn burn". 

This month completes the third six months, a period of marked 
progress, though the vocabulary is still limited and the pronuncia- 
tion imperfect (83:116). 

JANUARY, 1904; NINETEENTH MONTH. 

Some peculiarities of this month are " 'ats the way"; "tooti" 
(shoofly) ; "Goo eyes" (goo goo eyes) ; "daie" instead of "dawe" 
for dolly. 

FEBRUARY, 1904; TWENTIETH MONTH. 

G. brought two dolls to a chair and said repeatedly "two 
dolly". She would point to each of three little girls in a picture 
as someone said "one, two, three", but she would not say the 
words. 



SPEECH DEVELOPMENT. 

Before this month every woman was called mamma, now one 
is called "ladly" (lady). Moore says that the fact that a child calls 
every woman mamma, or every man papa, does not indicate that 
the parents are not distinguished from other adults (48:122). 

Sentences are frequently used. These are usually short and 
imperfect, as, "Hark! Boy!", "My! oh me!" 

MARCH, 1904; TWENTY-FIRST MONTH. 

This month was spent away from home visiting at her grand- 
mother's where G. had many more children to play with than at 
home. She added 197 words to her vocabulary, making a total of 
359 used so far. 

APRIL, 1904; TWENTY-SECOND MONTH. 

Imitation is now a strong factor in G. She wants to do 
everything that everyone else does, and repeats almost anything 
she hears. (83:117). She can use sentences of medium length. 
She added 118 words to her vocabulary, which now totals 477 
words. 

Once when G's. aunt cried, G. called her a cry-baby. 

MAY, 1904; TWENTY-THIRD MONTH. 

Ninety words were added this month to the total, which is 
now 567. 

JUNE, 1094; TWENTY-FOURTH MONTH. 

Tracy says that the progress is so rapid during the fourth 
period of six months that any detailed account is very difficult 
(83:118). G. certainly made considerable progress this month 
as well as during the whole period, but other matters prevented 
making very full records. 

8 



CHRONOLOGICAL RECORD. 

G. called lemonade "very sour." Her idea of plurality is 
well developed. She uses subjunctives frequently in such sen- 
tences as, "Kitty might bite." She used the expression "wind 
it" in connection with anything that turned, as a clock, a watch, 
an egg-beater, a meat-chopper. Things are named from their 
acts, as, a ribbon was called "a bio win' thing". She recognizes 
the postman by his ring at the doorbell. 

JULY, 1904; TWENTY-FIFTH MONTH. 

Sixty-five new words were added this month. The record 
was not very complete, or probably more would have been secured. 

AUGUST, 1904; TWENTY-SIXTH MONTH. 
{To October Inclusive). 

No records were kept, but considerable progress was made, as 
indicated by the large number of words added during the next 
few months. 

NOVEMBER, 1904; TWENTY-NINTH MONTH. 

More new words (426) were recorded this month than in any 
other month in which a record was kept, but they were probably 
an accumulation of several unrecorded months. Then as this 
subject was decided on for a thesis this month, more time was 
given to the records than before. 

Progress does not seem uniform. When G. associates with 
persons outside the family, especially children, she talks more. 
But an examination of the curve of total words seems to indicate 
that the new words in any month are nearly proportional to the 
total number of words, new and old, recorded in that month. This 
is especially true in the last three years. 

G. has been asked often to name objects, so she frequently on 
seeing some object will say "I'll tell papa what that is." 

Not all words are equally well understood or are used with 



SPEECH DEVELOPMENT. 

equal frequency. Variations are similar to those of adults. A few 
of all the words used form the bulk of the vocabulary, if measured 
by frequency of use. 

The errors in enunciation are of interest. Some of these 
noted are due, no doubt, to inability to articulate perfectly, but 
others are due to a spirit of mischief, of perversity, or to imitation 
of other children. Parents^, who use or encourage much baby 
talk, may help very materially to bring about retardation of 
speech development. (8:139). 

The errors which follow are numbered for convenience in 
referring to them, 

1. th, used for ch; as "theese" ^ cheese. 

"thunk" = chunk 

2. 1, used for ch; as " locolate "= chocolate. 

3. ts, used for ch ; as " tsair ' ' = chair. 

4. f, used for th; as "wif" = with, 

"toof" = tooth. 
' ' f umb ' ' = thumb. 
"Lufer" — Luther. 

5. d, used for th; as **dat" = that. 

6. dh, used for j; as "dhar" = jar, 
6a, n, used for j; as "nam" ^ jam. 

7. s initial is often, but not always, omitted 

before another consonant, as, 

' ' tomach ' ' = stomach 
' ' mart ' ' = smart. 
" no " ^ snow. 

8. 1, used for r; as "player" = prayer. 

9. b, used for m; as "bachine" = machine. 

10, c, used for h; as "corn"== horn. 

11, b, used for br; as " libary " = library. 

12, gw, used for dr; as "gwink"=^ drink. 

13, g, used for gr; as "gape nut" = grape nut. 

14, "ur" = other; " nur " ^ another. 

15, ' ' bieaeh ' ' = bread ; ' ' pemperunt ' ' = peppermint. 

10 



CHRONOLOGICAL RECORD. 

It will be noted that, while certain sounds or combinations 
cannot be, at least are not, made in some words, they are made 
perfectly in other words, and further, are substituted in other 
words for the correct sounds, as in No. 5 and No. 6. Probably 
incorrect enunciations are often survivals from an earlier period 
when they really could not be correctly made ; often they are due 
to laziness or habit, and perhaps to sheer perversity or a desire to 
show off, or to imitate some other child. G. would often, when 
prompted, give the correct word or sound, but when left to herself, 
relapse into the incorrect form. There is a period in the develop- 
ment of speech when a child really cannot make a certain sound. 
I tried long but vainly to teach a four year old kindergarten child 
to make the "th" sound in "the", etc., (85:17.) I showed her 
how to place her tongue to make the sound but without success. 
(51:45). I have had similar experiences with older pupils. It 
seems that the longer a person delays learning a sound the harder 
it is to learn to use it naturally ; an adult German rarely learns to 
use the th and dh sounds correctly. 

Tracy (83:118) says that the mastery of pronouns is one of 
the greatest difficulties a child has to overcome; that frequently 
the thirteenth month is reached before this is accomplished. G. 
is now making a good beginning and often corrects mistakes volun- 
tarily, as, "He's sick in her froat" was at once changed to "his 
froat". A sentence was begun "your finger", but at once 
changed to correct form "my finger". Persons and genders are 
often sadly mixed, although great pains have been taken to teach 
them, as, "Mamma rockabye you" (me) is frequently used. 
There seems less difficulty with cases than with persons and 
genders. I and me are often correctly used; as, "they fit on me." 
Who and what are not yet differentiated; as "Who's his name?" 
for what's his name? Moore (48:129) says that her child began 
about the twentieth month to distinguish between I and you, mine 
and yours, and to use them in the twenty-second month, and that 
genders were not confused. 

11 



SPEECH DEVELOPMENT. 

Verbs also are a stumbling block to the child. The imperative 
is now and has been for a long time correctly used; "Get me a 
knife. " " Leave the door open. ' ' 

Singular and plural are not always distinguished; "Come in 
here where Gr. are (is)." 

Tenses are a difficulty, especially in the case of the irregular 
forms which comprise our commonest verbs. 

' ' How are you been ? " " brang, bringed ' ' = brought. 

' ' teared = torn, ' ' hidded = hidden. 

' ' must have tooken ' ' ( taken ) . 

Up to this time past tenses of irregular verbs have been 
classed as separate words, but after the thirtieth month they are 
no longer counted separately. Present participles have not been 
counted as separate words. 

Compound nouns (3:26) as washrag, washboard, etc., have 
been considered as separate words. 

Wundt believes that all stories of words invented by children 
are fables. (14:339). Although G. has not used many words 
which she has invented, there are certainly a few such, as, "nix", 
for sewer or drain, "aya", evidently meaning goodbye, "nakyu" 
(thank you) said when receiving something, but more often when 
giving a thing to someone, "my glasses" (molasses), obstinately 
used, though we tried hard to induce her to use the correct word. 
I told her to say mo. She replied, ' ' I can 't say ' mo ', I 'm too little 
to say 'mo'." 

Words are invented as names of objects by compounding 
simpler words, as, "bio win' thing" for bicycle pump, "'cut 
grasser" for sickle. Other inventions will be noticed as they occur. 

Contradictions are used, especially of a verb with its subject. 

G. cannot count more than two. 

Usually a question must be repeated, often several times before 
G. attempts to reply, and then answers are given slowly, after 
much hesitation and deliberation if there is any indecision, or if 
there is a spirit of perversity. 

12 



CHRONOLOGICAL RECORD. 

Some sentences recorded this month follow : ' ' Uncle Paul 
hurt his arm ; he had to bind it up. " ' ' Don "t that beat the 
Dickens?" was remarked when G. could not open a drawer. "My! 
but that 's an ugly old picker ! ' ' was said when she could not loosen 
a burdock burr from her coat. 

An excellent illustration of enduring memory occurs this 
month. The song "Kentucky Babe" was sung once to G. The 
expression "boogie man" was remembered and used by G. in 
various ways, as, "Boogin down there." (In the cellar, or in a 
hole in the yard). 

DECEMBER, 1904; THIRTIETH MONTH. 

Sounds, especially of the consonants, still give trouble 
(48:117). "Des" and "deres" (there's), "fred" (thread), "wif" 
and "wiv" (with), "haf" (have), "at" and "dat" (that), "dis" 
(this), etc., but they can all be corrected pronounced as "thing", 
"there". 

W is used for r, as, "wusty" (rusty); b = t, as, "bobble" 
(bottle); d = g, as, "redister" (register); "tumler" (tumbler); 
"hollow berry" (holly berry) ; "shubel" (shovel) ; "gakoo" 
(cracker); "aproncot" (apricot); "puggin" (pumpkin). 

Contractions are frequently used, " I '11 " = 1 will ; ' doesn 't ' ' 
= does not. Irregular plurals are formed, as, "feeties" and 
"footies" = feet. 

The persons of personal pronouns are usually, but not in- 
variably, correct, as, "We'll shave herself", (ourselves). Can't 
hurt herself," (her), but "I'm shaving myself", instead of her- 
self, as formerly. (83 :118. ) 

Usually a is used before consonants and an before vowels. 
Final g of ing is often elided, but can be sounded, especially in 
words of one syllable. 

The difficulties of enunciating sounds correctly are being 
gradually mastered, but the mastery of the forms of the irregular 

13 



SPEECH DEVELOPMENT. 

verbs is still very difficult. "Isn't" = are not; **I has" = I have; 
"it's all wind" = all wound; " dra wed " = drew ; "wanter"== 
want to. 

Conjunctions and prepositions are not always distinguished, 
as, "There's a horsey of wagons", instead of "and wagon". 
Diminutives and diminutive endings are much used and enjoyed, 
as, "toey", (little toe); "warmy", (warm); "pinnies", (pins). 
We notice that not only nouns, but other parts of speech, as adjec- 
tives, may receive diminutive endings. 

We cannot be sure that a word has been dropped from the 
vocabulary, because we no longer find it used. A word may 
remain dormant or potential for months, perhaps years, and then 
be used when required. As an example, the word hoptoad was 
used last summer and apparently lost from disuse. Recently, 
months later, when toads had long since disappeared, a peach 
stone was called a hoptoad. 

JANVAUY, 1905; THIRTY-FIRST MONTH. 

There seems to be some improvement in the use of pronouns. 
"What's my name?" in response to "What's your name?", 
shows discrimination of personal pronouns. First and second 
persons are usually well distinguished, although sex is not, as 
shown by the use of herself for himself. "Girl got mark on its 
nose." "Those vocabulary." "Why (what) did you do that 
for?" 

Love for rhyming and alliterative expressions is shown by 
frequent use of such inventions as, "doggie, poggie, woggie", 
"spooly, booly, wooly", "dolly, polly, wolly", "bunny, wunny", 
"piggie, wiggie". (83:114); (10:470). 

Verbs are causing many errors, as, "I hasn't", "I doesn't", 
"I want see" (to see). Final g of ing in participles is usually 
omitted, as, "comin' ". 

All the sounds represented by the letters of the alphabet can 
be correctly made in imitation of some one who pronounces them. 

14 



CHRONOLOGICAL RECORD, 

In some positions, especially initial, r is not uniformly well 
pronounced, "wicli" is used for rich, but the correct sound can 
be made. 

The correct sound of wh initial is not usually given, "wen", 
(when), but on prompting G. can give the correct sound. Th, dr 
and squ are still difficult, "Kafryn", (Katharine), "dv/ars" 
(drawers), "gueezin' " (squeezing), "googer", (sugar). 

G. now realizes that she is the subject of observation and 
experiment. This feeling of self-consciousness grows stronger 
continually and tends to interfere at times with the recording of 
her vocabulary. She often takes a pencil and paper and says, 
"I must write in my vocabulary." This word is often pronounced 
correctly, and also, "cabulary" and * ' becabulary. " 

The word elbow can be correctly pronounced, but is usually 
called ' ' ayabo. " " My finger is all sored, " is an illustration of the 
construction of a word by analogy with perfect participles. 
"Bessons" is an unknown word used frequently, as, ''bessons and 
things in it. ' ' The word is undoubtedly an invention. We have 
tried hard, but in vain, to discover a meaning for it. Some of the 
words G. has invented have a very definite meaning. 

FEBRUARY, 1905; THIRTY-SECOND MONTH. 

Persons in pronouns are now usually well discriminated. 
Regular comparison is used in the case of such adjectives as 
"beautifuller." The adverbs are not always distinguished from 
adjectives, as, "possible" was used as an adverb. 

MARCH, 1905; THIRTY-THIRD MONTH. 

Th is still troublesome; " ding " ^ thing. Contracted forms, 
as, "isn't," "don't," "here's," are much used. These forms 
appear to follow, in point of time, the full forms. 

Verb forms cause trouble. "I wants," "writed" (wrote), 
"telled" (told), "She have (will have) to light a lamp." Some 
auxiliary forms are correctly used, as, "She ought not to get fat." 

15 



SPEECH DEVELOPMENT. 

APRIL, 1905; THIRTY-FOURTH MONTH. 

Yes is used rather frequently now, but not often before this 
month. It appears much later than no. The intinitive mode is 
often correctly used. 

''Steicher" is an invented word. It means cobweb and, 
apparently, nothing else. Frogs (in a picture book) are called 
"robbers." We do not know where or how G. learned the word 
robbers, nor what made her use it for frogs, which she does 
persistently. 

Self -consciousness is frequently shown when records of G's. 
vocabulary are made, by such remarks as, "You're writing in my 
vocabulary. ' ' 

In recording words we find much repetition at the same or 
different times (68:134). A word or topic is taken as a theme 
and endlessly and tirelessly repeated' in the same form or with 
variations. 

G. is becoming less satisfied with pretending and desires real, 
or at least objective, things in her play, as, a bucket, soap and 
washboard for washing. 

The persons and cases of pronouns are usually correct, few 
mistakes being made, but "these sort" and similar errors, which 
she does not hear at home, show that number is not fully mastered. 

Comparatives and superlatives of adjectives are freely and 
correctly used. 

The regular formation of plurals is now grasped, as shown in 
its application by analogy to such words as, "mans" for men. 

Mispronunciations are due not so often to inability to enun- 
ciate certain sounds, as to inability to keep these arranged in cor- 
rect order, as, "pertend=pretend; "berember"=remember; eli- 
sion of some part of the word occurs, as in " monian"= ammonia ; 
or occasionally such additions as in "tyd'phoid"=typhoid, occur, 
due possibly to rhyming of the first syllable with the second. 

16 



CHRONOLOGICAL RECORD. 

MAY, 1905; THIRTY-FIFTH MONTH. 

Many compound words are formed. These are often original 
with G. Such inventions, just as errors, show analogy and rea- 
soning power, as also do regular forms used for past tenses of 
irregular verbs, as, ' ' taked "=took. "I were"=I was, is due to 
confusion of numbers. 

G's. enunciation has been good, so good in her thirtieth month 
as to cause considerable comment, but recently there has begun a 
tendency to drawl, making two syllables out of one, as, "ye-us" == 
yes. This word yes is now used more and more in answers instead 
of repeating the whole question, as was formerly done. 

Frequently a thing said by some one else is repeated by G. 
with proper grammatical changes, as though the person that G. ad- 
dresses could not hear or understand without this interpretation, 
as, "I am going upstairs", becomes, "She said, 'she is going 
upstairs.' " 

JUNE, 1905; THIRTY-SIXTH MONTH. 

Sometimes when G. makes a mistake, if she is instructed just 
how to place her vocal organs, the difficulty will disappear. In 
the case of children having more serious impediment, this method 
has not succeeded. With regard to some sounds, laziness rather 
than inability, seems to cause an easier sound to be given in place 
of a harder. Hall says (29:133), "Old baby forms often persist 
from habit long after the correct form can be uttered." Some 
errors are \ ' f rough ' ' = through ; ' ' inspensive ' ' ^ expensive ; 
* * crocrets ' ' = croquets ; ' ' breakf uts ' ' = breakfast. The word little 
is now pronounced "ul." Occasionally, when corrected, G. will 
give the proper form, but often she will obstinatel.^ repeat the 
error. This growing obstinacy is becoming a retarding factor, 
causing, at least, a temporary retardation in speech development. 

Other errors are, ' ' You and me wouldn 't " ; " goed ' ' = went ; 
"were I" = was I (frequently used); "must leave" = must let. 
The words leave and let are badly mixed in spite of corrections. 

17 



SPEECH DEVELOPMENT. 

The word yes is seldom used now. Its place is taken by the 
grunting sounds represented by "uh uh". Mistakes in forming 
plurals are shown in " womans " = women, and in a peculiar 
pluralizing of the adverb in ''they got their hat ons" = hats on. 
The word "bropre", of unknown meaning, was evidently invented, 
and is often used. 

G. is becoming fond of rhyme and meter, She sang "On a 
summer day she ran away ' ', which she made up herself. 

JULY, 1905; THIRTY-SEVENTH MONTH. 

Mistakes this month are : ' ' vocay ' ' = bouquet ; ' * besturb ' ' = 
disturb ; ' ' berember ' ' = remember ; ' ' wiv ' ' = with ; ' ' abel bie ' ' = 
apple pie ; ' ' lugy vorce ' ' = lucky force ; ' ' wader ' ' = water ; 
' ' billow ' ' = pillow ; ' ' pimble ' ' and ' ' bimble ' ' = pimple ; mutes 
are frequently thus vocalized, apparently for the pleasure of the 
effort. ' ' Buthy ' ' = bunny. In this case the sound " th " can be 
given and seems to be preferred to the correct sound. In such 
words as Katherine th is usually changed to f. "Cabus" is used 
for vocabulary. 

Vowels have been sounded very accurately, as a rule, but 
lately there has been a tendency to corrupt the vowels as well as 
the consonants, as, ' ' boicy, " " moizey , " " mizey ' ' = micey ; 
' ' pensoil ' ' = pencil ; ' ' mommo ' ' = mamma. Vowels seem at 
first to give less difficulty than some consonants. 

The changes in vowels in the past tense of irregular verbs are 
not usually to be accounted as corruptions, though they may be in 
certain cases. They are usually the result of an effort to form these 
tenses by analogy to other forms already known, or perhaps to 
pure guesswork when the correct form is unknown or not 
remembered. 

Attempts to prevent these and other corruptions, as, "ul" 
for little, "uh-uh" for yes, and abbreviations, as, "po" for potato, 
"high" for high chair, seem without effect. 

When G. is angry she indulges in an almost inarticulate jargon 
of sounds. This has been noticed since the thirty-fourth month. 

18 



CHRONOLOGICAL BECOBD. 

Pennsylvania Dutch expressions, as, "I want up," "I want 
down (or out)," have been learned from companions when visiting, 
and, in spite of frequent corrections, are much used. 

Certain words, as, "Cornell," will be repeated over and over 
again, it seems hundreds of times, apparently for the enjoyment of 
the sound or of the muscular coordinations. 

A story was invented by G. One version is, "Once there was 
a little bunny and a big wolf ran after him and the bunny ran like 
everything, and ran in his hole, and I whipped the big wolf." 
This was frequently repeated in varying forms, usually less com- 
plete than the one given. 

It is noticed that in learning abstractions and relational words, 
the word must come first in use : the meaning seems to follow use. 
Miss Sullivan remarks this observation about Helen Kellar, in the 
latter 's autobiography. 



AUGUST, 1905; THIRTY-EIGHTH MONTH, 

The unit of thought seems to be the sentence, which is cor- 
rectly used, even when some of the component words are certainly 
not understood. Such sentences may be remembered entire or in 
part from the speech of other persons. Many words are commonly 
used long before they can, from their very nature, be understood, 
as, "God," "Jesus," "Spirit." 

The great desire of the child is to have things named, to know 
what things are. This habit seems to be carried all through early 
childhood, at least. The child is not prevented from asking 
questions by the fear of seeming ignorant, as many adults, and 
even high school students are. The child seems satisfied with a 
name, even if it is not full of meaning. Almost any word, no 
matter whether long or short, at this period, can be remembered as 
the name of some object, or even without special connection with 
anything else. 

Self -consciousness is illustrated by such remarks as, "Are 
you writing my name?" 

19 



SPEECH DEVELOPMENT. 

Mutes are vocalized frequently, as, " abel' ' = apple ; "hair- 
bin ' ' = hair-pin ; ' ' diirdle ' ' = turtle ; ' ' twingle ' ' = twinkle ; 
''gitty"=kitty; "pimble" and "bimble"=pimple; "Miss Muv- 
vid ' ' = Miss Muffet ; ' ' bigcher ' ' = picture ; ' ' gandy ' ' = candy. 
Vowels are corrupted as previously. * ' Boy en ' ' = bun, which was 
formerly, and can still be, correctly pronounced. Abbreviated 
forms of words are used. 

Personal pronouns are well differentiated now in eases, persons 
and number; few mistakes are made. 

SEPTEMBER, 1905; THIRTY-NINTH MONTH. 

Errors in articulation and corruptions in vowels and 
consonants occur as previously. 

"Is there a deep brook down there?" shows two uses of the 
same word in one sentence. 

Incorrect past tenses of irregular verbs are: "brang"== 
brought; "You oughtn't to'v doin (done) that;" "I can reach 
from up there" shows use of a compound preposition. By the 
mistakes which children make we may obtain clues to tlieir mental 
development. Regular forms invented for irregular verbs show- 
that the child is constructing forms by analogy with others, really 
a logical process. 

OCTOBER, 1905; FORTIETH MONTH. 

G's. enunciation and pronunciation are much poorer than a 
year ago. An affected style has replaced the pure, simple, 
straighforward enunciation of the thirtieth month. She uses 
much baby talk, and quotes and imitates a baby next door, also 
other babies of her acquaintance, and pretends to be a baby. She 
abbreviates not only words but sentences, as, "silver," meaning, 
"I want a drink in my silver cup." This is a period of slow 
development, almost stagnation. In the 40th, 41st, 42nd and 43rd 
months, 37, 23, 54 and 12 words respectively were recorded, a 

20 



CHRONOLOGICAL RECORD. 

total of only 126 new words, although at least 1500 new words, 
old and new, were recorded. 

There is still much trouble with irregular verbs. 

NOVEMBER, 1905; FORTY-FIRST MONTH. 

A few errors noted are : ' ' Threwn ' ' = thrown ; ' ' caught ' ' = 
catch ; ' ' caughting ' ' = catching ; ' ' hidded ' ' = hidden ; ' ' weared ' ' 
= worn; "portant" and " porkant " ^ important ; "bited"^bit. 

DECEMBER, 1905; AND JANUARY, 1906; FORTY-FIRST 
AND FORTY-SECOND MONTHS. 

Such errors as those of the previous month are sometimes 
corrected without prompting, as, "loosed" was at once changed 
to "lost." The mistakes are the same as in previous months. 
* ' Tunette ' ' = tune, was invented, perhaps, by analogy. Such an 
error as "bushful" for bushel, is probably due to sound resem- 
blance and a misconception of the term. "Match a light", for 
strike a light, shows the tendency to employ a term as noun, verb 
or adjective, as occasion demands, thus extending to words in 
general a property which belongs to a few roots. "Weigher" = 
scale, shows the tendency to name an object from its use. 

FEBRUARY, 1906; FORTY-FOURTH MONTH. 

"I don't say brang any more; I say brought," shows that 
there is a growing appreciation of the difference between correct 
and incorrect forms. A few errors are : ' ' Grinded ' ' = ground ; 
" sticked "== stuck ; " kno wed " = knew. Nearly all are regular 
forms invented by analogy. 

Self consciousness increases in G. as she realizes that she is 
the subject of observation. This may lead to the invention of 
nonsense in a spirit of pure mischief, as, "Graboil, write down 
graboil. ' ' 

21 



SPEECH DEVELOPMENT. 

3IARCH AND APRIL, 1906; FORTY-FIFTH AND 
FORTY-SIXTH MONTHS. 

Errors are similar to those of previous months. "Spended" 
= spent ; ' ' bio wed ' ' = blew ; ' ' tooken ' ' = taken ; ' ' stinged ' ' and 
* ' stang ' ' = stung ; ' ' writed ' ' = wrote ; ' ' bringed ' ' = brought ; 
"readed" =read (past); "spitted" = spit. Some of these are 
modelled after regular forms, a few are constructed by analogy 
with irregular forms. "Them primers" for those, shows mixing 
of personal and possessive pronouns. Sucli mistakes occur as a 
result of a greater range of ideas than the memory is supplied 
with correct forms to express. "Of I " = of me, shows that mis- 
takes m,ay still occur among personal pronouns. Double negatives 
occur, as, "Won't eat no more," an error which G. had probably 
never heard in speech. 

Curiosity to know what is being recorded in the vocabulary is 
often shown. "Papa's writing down my words." G. got a little 
blank book, looked for a time intently at her doll, then said, "She 
said something, ' ' and at once began to scribble in the book. I 'm 
saying that just for fun, ' ' she remarked, as someone was making a 
record of her conversation. 

MAY, 1906; FORTY- SEVENTH MONTH. 

Among errors are : ' ' Gotting ' ' = getting ; ' ' hoppen ' ' = 
hopped; " tooken " = taken; "putten" = put (past); "dranked" 
and ' ' dranken ' ' = drunk ; ' ' blowed ' ' = blew ; ' ' has been bite ' ' 
(bitten). Vowels are draw^led making two syllables of one, as 
"aga-un" (again) ; "na-ow" (now) ; "ye-us" (yes) ; "bre-ud" 
(bread). The tendency to baby talk before noted has continued, 
and even increased. Errors occur in the use of consonants. 
Some are due to perversity, the substitution of difficult for easy 
sounds, as, "buther" = butter; " rinch " = rinse. 

G. corrected someone who said "I done", saymg, "You 
shouldn't say done; you should say did." When tested by say- 

22 



CHB0N0L06ICAL RECORD. 

ing to her, ''I must shave herself," she replied, "You mustn't say 
shave herself; say shave myself." 

JUNE, 1906; FORTY-EIGHTH MONTH. 

Some errors are: ''hadn't sain" (said); "undoed" = un- 
did; "spended" = spent; " aten " = eaten ; "has ate"^eaten; 
"sewn" =: sewed. "Most cleanest" and "more badder" show 
double comparison. "Cut grasser" was invented for sickle. 
Drawlings of vowels, umlauting vowels, as, "soe"==see (frequently 
used) and vocalizing mutes occur often. 

On Sunday, June 17, G. had a birthday party (one week 
early). She was told then that next Sunday would be her birth- 
day. The subject was not mentioned again to her after Friday, 
June 22, but she talked about it all the week, and somehow kept 
track of the time, for of her own accord on Saturday she said, 
"Tomorrow will be my birthday," and on Sunday morning she 
said, ' ' I am four years old today. ' ' 

JULY, 1906; FORTY-NINTH MONTH. 

The tendency to baby talk still continues, increasing rather 
than diminishing, also much unintelligible babbling, presumably in 
imitation of a baby just learning to talk. When playing alone, 
G. will babble by the hour, mixing in words and sentences. Ex- 
amples of invented compounds are ' ' lighter lamper, ' ' == lamp 
lighter ; ' ' lacerf old " = ? " Childs = children, is an example of 
regular plural for irregular. 

AUGUST, 1906; FIFTIETH MONTH. 

The errors are much the same as in previous months. 
"Splincter" = splinter. Such adverbs as "simply" and "abso- 
lutely" are correctly used. The sense of possession is shown by 
the frequent use of ' ' my. ' ' 

23 



SPEECH DEVELOPMENT. 

SEPTEMBER AND OCTOBER, 1906; FIFTY-FIRST 
AND FIFTY-SECOND MONTHS. 

Baby talk and drawl continue, and the errors are about as in 
former months. "Ought not to have breaken,'"' "I haven't maken 
it yet," show the construction of perfect participles by analogy to 
taken. ' ' Wroted and writed ' ' = written. ' ' Thiuked ' ' was at 
once corrected to "thought." 

G. entered kindergarten October 1st, 1906. 

NOVEMBER AND DECEMBER, 1906; FIFTY-THIRD 
FIFTY-FOURTH MONTHS. 

The clipping of syllables and words colloquially common 
among adults is noticeable even in cases where presumably G. has 
never heard these in conversation. 

"Goodest" for best shows appreciation of comparison of ad- 
jectives. "More warmer" shows double comparison. Mistakes 
made by other persons are noticed and corrected, as, "Preston says 
brack pomy for black pony." 

The names of the week are used, probably having been learned 
at the kindergarten. 

JANUARY AND FEBRUARY, 1907; FIFTY-FIFTH 
AND FIFTY-SIXTH MONTHS. 

Errors are much as in other months. Drawl and baby talk 
continue. The vocabulary is really larger than the records show, 
for many words are used in varying and quite different senses, 
either as different parts of speech, or in different meanings of the 
same form and part of speech. 

MARCH, APRIL AND MAY, 1907; FIFTY-SEVENTH, FIFTY- 
EIGHTH AND FIFTY-NINTH MONTHS. 

Self-consciousness grows, G. often notices or corrects the 
mistakes of others, as, "Jessie says 'dink (or gink) of water': G. 
can say 'drink of water.' " Such mistakes as, "consilitis" for 

24 



CHRONOLOGICAL RECORD. 

tonsilitis, and "Jack in the Popet" (Pulpit), seem to indicate in- 
accuracy in perceiving sounds. "Is that him?" shows that the 
objective case after verbs is distinguished. 

JULY, 1907; SIXTY-FIRST MONTH. 
Errors are ' ' druved ' ' = drove ; ' ' teached ' ' = taught. 

AUGUST, 1907. NO RECORDS. 

SEPTEMBER, 1907; SIXTY-THIRD MONTH. 

Such expressions as, "Lets look in the enlope once," are 
imitated from companions. Other errors are, "corter" = quarter; 
' ' crown ' ' = crayon ; ' ' enlope ' ' = envelope. 

OCTOBER, NOVEMBER AND DECEMBER, 1907; SIXTY- 
FOURTH, SIXTY-FIFTH AND SIXTY -SIXTH MONTHS. 

Errors are, "dag" == dig; "lie" = lay; but "lied down" was 
at once spontaneously corrected to "lay down." 

Self -consciousness often takes the form of nonsensical combin- 
ations and a reluctance to talk for record, "Here don't you 
write that down, ' ' G. takes delight in endless repetitions of verses 
or stanzas of selections learned at school, or in nonsense. 

JANUARY, FEBRUARY AND MARCH, 1908; SIXTY-SEV- 
ENTH, SIXTY-EIGHTH AND SIXTY NINTH MONTHS. 

Self-consciousness increases. "Now is the time I want you 
to write just what I say." While records are made G. makes 
such remarks, or else objects to having any record made. She 
has the colloquial tendency to slur endings and to obscure un- 
accented vowels, 

A pronounced tendency to stammer has appeared. This was 
entirely absent at the end of the thirtieth month, when enunciation 
was very good. Deterioration began very noticeably about the 

25 



SPEECH DEVELOPMENT. 

fiftieth month when G. entered the kindergarten. It may be 
partly due to imitation of several kindergarten children who 
stammer badly, though it was observed to a degree before her 
entrance to the kindergarten. It may have some connection with 
the development of adenoids, which were removed in the eighty 
first month. 

APRIL, MAY AND JUNE, 1908; SEVENTIETH, SEVENTY- 
FIRST AND SEVENTY-SECOND MONTHS. 

Errors : ' * ariole ' ' = oriole ; ' * catarrh ' ' = guitar ; * ' ducking ' ' 
= duckling; "Easer" ^ Easter; "lu pig"=little pig; "noceros" 
= rhinoceros ; " I 'm bown declare " = I vow and declare ; 
" medals " ^ petals (probably an error in audition). G. has 
formed the colloquial habit of prefacing statements with 'why.' 
No amount of correction has served noticeably to abate this error. 
It is much harder to combat such a mistake, which requires nega- 
tion, than one requiring a positive command. "Why are you 
writing in my vo? I'd better talk an awful lot." 



26 



PAKT IL 
Analysis of Curves on Chart. 

Eleven curves are traced on the chart, as follows : 



1. 


Total words used 




3384. 




2. 


Saxon words 




2993. 


88.74% 


3. 


Total nouns, 




2066. 


61.07% 


4. 


Total verbs 




677. 


20.01% 


5. 


Compound nouns 




407. 


12.03% 


6. 


Total adjectives 




400. 


11.82% 


7. 


Words of foreign 


derivation, 


345. 


10.19% 


8. 


Proper nouns 




262. 


7.74% 


9. 


Mispronounced words 


141. 


4.16% 


10. 


Total adverbs 




132. 


3.90% 


11. 


Invented words 




45. 


1.33% 



The curves for interjections, prepositions and pronouns, if 
.plotted, would almost coincide with that of invented words, so 
they are omitted because they would confuse the chart. 

Each horizontal line on the chart represents 100 words. At 
the right of the chart are the numbers of the curves; at the bot- 
tom are the numbers of the months. Each oblong space represents 
one mionth horizontally, and vertically one hundred words. 

The curve of compound words crosses that of adjectives in 
the seventy-first month: the curve of foreign words crosses tha\ 
of proper nouns in the forty-ninth month. To save confusion 
curves 5 to 11 inclusive begin with the twenty-ninth month. 

It will be noticed how closely the curves for total words and 
Saxon words run together throughout the entire period, and what 
a large proportion nouns form of the whole vocabulary in all 

27 



SPEECH DEVELOPMENT. 

months, particularly the earliest. Nouns, verbs and adjectives 
compose nearly 93%, (48:130). Proper nouns form a relatively 
small percentage, 7.74%. These are the most likely of all words 
to drop out with a change of environment, and yet even these 
words, it was observed, were retained with remarkable persistence, 
often for more than a year after all apparent occasion for their 
use has disappeared. 

Four breaks occur in the records. There is one from the 
tenth to twelfth month, when there may have been no new words 
used, if, indeed, any of the vocalizations of thjse months may 
properly be termed words. Also two important breaks occur, 
from the fourteenth to the eighteenth and from the twenty-fifth 
to the twenty-ninth months, doubtless causing a loss of some, per- 
haps many, words, which were probably used, but not recorded 
until later. A brief gap occurs for one month only, after the 
sixty-first month. 

The numbers in the table for total words used represent, 
approximately, the number of words recorded in each month, in- 
cluding, of course, many repetitions. No estimate is given before 
the eighteenth month because the material gathered was not pre- 
served after the new words had been recorded. Probably from 
40,000 to 50,000 words were collected in the records. 

It is noticeable, especially in the early months, that wherever 
the records for a month were small, the curve shows a drop wnich 
nearly corresponds. One might suppose that a great increase in 
the number of words recorded in any month would give a corres- 
ponding increase in the number of new words for that montli. 
This is true only to a limited extent. The greatest increase noted 
occurs in the twenty-ninth month, after a gap of three montlis 
without any record. "While 426 new words were recorded, some of 
these probably belong in reality to previous months. In the 
seventy-second month the greatest number (1950) of words for 
any one month was collected, but in all this material there were 
only 85 new words. The experiment shows that, while there is an 
increase in the number of words used, there is a sameness to the 

28 



ANALYSIS OF CURVES ON CHART. 

vocabulary, a constant repetition of the words already learned. 
Possibly we may conclude that the vocabulary development is a 
fairly steady operation, and that a perfect record of all the words 
used by a child would cause a curve which Avould be nearly a 
straight line. The exceptions would occur when a change of en- 
vironment brought a new vocabulary into the experience of the 
child. G. made quite a few visits and trips, two removals to 
other cities and also, in the fifty-first month entered the kinder- 
garten and in the seventieth month the primary school. The 
influence of these changes is noticeable to parents, but does not 
materially affect the steepness of the curve. 

Invented words play an important part in the development of 
some children (8:136), perhaps oftener when children of the 
same age play together, but they form a very small part of G's. 
vocabulary. 

The mispronounced words form 4.16% of the total vocabulary. 
Probably more complete records in the first twenty-four months 
would have increased this percentage considerably. IMost of these 
mispronounced words were recorded in their correct forms and 
counted again in the months when so recorded. About the 
thirtieth month the enunciation was remarkably clear and correct, 
more so than that of many adults. Later, a degeneration in tliis 
respect was noticed. The precise cause of this is not known. 
Some of it was doubtless caused by association with younger 
children and imitation of errors: some seems due to obstinacy. 

The vocabulary contains 12.03% of compound nouns, com- 
pounded in the Saxon way. Some of these are in regular use, as, 
ash-pan, ash-pile, sewing room ; others are unique inventions, as, 
" cut-grasser ", for sickle, "hop-grasser", for grass-hopper, "board- 
wash," for wash-board, etc. Some of these occur in tlie com- 
pound form only, but many appear also in the simple form or in 
several com,binations. The compound form usually preceeds the 
simple form, as, "bath-tub," in the twenty-first month, "bath- 
room," in the twenty-ninth month, "bath-robe," in the thirtieth 
month, "bath," in the thirty-third month. 

29 



SPEECH DEVELOPMENT. 

Words derived from Latin and other foreign languages play 
but a small part in the vocabulary, 10.19%, Just why this should 
be so is not clear, as G. heard such words constantly and in abun- 
dance. Perhaps a child retains in memory and uses only such 
words as are related to its experiences and are intelligible in a 
concrete way. This is certainly true in a general way, but many 
puzzling exceptions have been noticed. 

Plurals of nouns are not separately recorded, but are consid- 
ered the same form as singulars. Diminutives, such as ' ' toastie, ' ' 
for toast, are not recorded as separate words when the correct form 
occurs at the same time. Past tenses and perfect participles of 
irregular verbs are recorded separately until the thirtieth month. 
These total fifty words of the vocabulary. Past tenses of regular 
verbs and all present participles are considered the same as present 
tenses and are not separately counted. Where a word of the same 
sound or form is used in two or more senses, as, ride, the verb, and 
ride, the noun ; cold, adjective and noun, it is recorded as a separ- 
ate word for each use. 

Irregular plurals of pronouns are counted as distinct words. 
Seven such are recorded. In the case of the articles a and an. 
each is counted a separate word. Comparatives and superlatives 
of adjectives and adverbs have been considered the same forms and 
not separately counted. Compound prepositions and expressions 
used as such are not counted separately, but only in the component 
words. 



30 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS. 

PART 1 1 1. 
Sounds 

VOWELS. 

In the babbling period vowel sounds precede the consonants, 
because the latter require more or less adjustment of the vocal 
organs. Chamberlain (10:126) remarks that some writers on the 
speech of early childhood have not only recognized a pure vowel 
period, but have distinguished closely the times of appearance of 
tlie individual vowels, and it seems to be generally admitted that 
vowels precede consonants. All the ordinary vowel sounds are 
made freely by the time the record begins in the ninth month, and 
usually made correctly. The mistakes which appear later seem 
to be due to misapplication of principles, as in forming past tenses 
of verbs according to false analogy ; to hearing sounds incompletely 
or incorrectly; to laziness or perversity, rather than to 
inability to make those sounds (13:51). This seems to be 
proved by the fact that the sounds which are incorrectly given in 
some words, are correctly made in others (14:829.) 

The single numbers refer to months in which a record is made. 

9. a (arm). 10. a (hat). 12. e (beet), e (her), 
u (hurt). 13. a (all), e (pet), oo (food), o (gone), u (but). 
14. i (pin). 18. 00 (foot). 21. a (basket). 

DIPHTHONGS, (8:127) 

10. ay (as in day), ow (as in how). 13. o (as in toe). 
21. oy (as in boy), i (as in bite). 29. ew (as in few.) 

Some errors are given in the chronological records (3:42). A 
few are: 29. "tookin' " = taken; "ur" =- other. 30. "ah" 
►= I ; " holloberry ' ' = hollyberry ; ' ' wanter ' ' = want to. 34. 

31 



SPEECH DEVELOPMENT. 

**pertend" = pretend (63:92). 35. Recently a drawl has been 
assumed. This corrupts the vowels (6:800). This drawl is the 
beginning of a serious decay in the use of vowels (31:597), which 
eontirues to the end of the records, though strenuous efforts were 
made to overcome this defect. Sounds which were made correctly 
are made so no longer, at least in certain words, while they may be 
correctly vocalized in others. 



STAMMERING AND DETERIORATION. 

37. About this time a tendency to stammer appears. This 
tendency increases up to the end of the sixth year, and, indeed, 
beyond this time {51 :45). Such changes in vowels as "mommoh" 
= mamma; "pensoil"= pencil are frequent. An affected 

style of speaking is springing up, due, apparently, to perversity, 
rather than to inability to vocalize correctly (85:17). This leads 
to corruption of both vowels and consonants, as, "boicy, moicey, 
moicey, and raizey" are all used for micey. Along with this vowel 
decay goes a tendency to vocalize many unvoiced mutes, as, 
**abble" = apple; " buthy " = bunny ; all which sounds can be 
given correctly, 45, "Aboil" = apple. 46. "Bonan" = banana. 
47. "Aga-un" = again; "na-ow" = now. These words are 
drawled so as to change the vowel and make two syllables of one. 
Frequently a vowel is given a sound like the umlauted vowels in 
German, "soe" = see. 

51. G. now enters Kindergarten, where there are several 
children who stammer or have other speech defects, as inability to 
articulate certain sounds. These errors of speech are imitiated 
by G, whose stammer now increflses considerably, 55. "Purty" 
== pretty. 56. "Drenve" = drove. Drawl increases. 72. 
"Ariole" = oriole. At the present time most of these defects 
have passed away (112th month), and reappear chiefly when G. 
associates with a baby or a child who does not talk well. 

32 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS, 

CONSONANTS. 

The mutes (14:330) seem easiest of the consonants to learn 
(24:18). At first the unvoiced mutes, t, d, p, seem easiest, but as 
the voiced mutes and other voiced consonants are learned, they 
seem to be preferred in place of easier sounds, (60:8), perhaps for 
the pleasure of making the sounds. Imperfect articulation may- 
be related to imperfect function of the auditory nerve (13:51). 

The consonant sounds were recorded for the first time in the 
folloAving months: 9. k, h, (14:345). 10. p, m, d, (11:107). 
12. t. 13. b, 1, w, (initial), ch, g, (hard), n, r, (6:804), 
14. s, z, sh, f. 18. th (thin). 19. v. 20. j (dzh.). 21. th 
(then). 30. y (initial). 70. j (zh). 

Compound consonants were recorded in order as follows: 

12. pr. 13. dr. 14. pi, cr. 19. gl. 20. st. 21. bl, 
br, gr, hw, str, sk, si, sp, ng (final). 22. fl. 23. sn. 24. tr. 
25. spl. 29. fr. 30. tw, sm. 34. kw (qu). 55. spr. 
60. shr. It is probable that some of these sounds occurred before 
they were recorded on the words from which they have been taken. 

Errors noted are : 14. g = sh, '* googer " = sugar. 18. n 
= th, "num" = thumb; p = t, " bopple " = bottle ; b = k; "bap" 
= cap ; ' ' nannie ' ' = candy ; "too ti " = shoo fly. 

29. "Th" = ch; "theese" = cheese; 1 = ch, "locolate" = 
chocolate ; 1 = r, " player ' ' = prayer ; b = br, " libary ' ' = library ; 
f = th, "fumb", "toof", "Kafrin," and many other; ts = ch, 
* ' tsair ' ' = chair ; t = st, " tomach ' ' = stomach ; d == th, " dat ' '= 
that, "deres" and " des " = there 's ; gw = dr, "gwink" == drink; 
b = m, "bachine" = machine; c = h, " corn '' = horn ; m = sra, 
' ' mart ' ' = smart ; n = sn ; " no " = snow. Initial s before another 
consonant is usually, but not always elided. 30. B =v, "shubel" 
= shovel ; f = V, " haf ' ' = have ; dw = dr, " d warseys ' ' = 
drawers; d = g, "redister" = register; w = r, "wusty" = rusty; 
g=mpk, "puggin" ^ pumpkin; b = bl. "tumler" = tumbler; 
there and thing can be and often are correctly pronounced, but not 

33 



SPEECH DEVELOPMENT. 

usually, ''at" = that Other mistakes ara: " sumpn " = some- 
thing; "aproncot" = apricot; "I'll" = I will. 31. Gu = squ, 
' ' gueezin ' " = squeezing ; ' ' f under ' ' = thunder ; * ' sored ' ' = sore ; 
" ladly " = lady ; "ayabo" = elbow. 32. "Ding" = thing. 34. 
' ' Tydpoid ' ' = typhoid ; ' ' pertend ' ' = pretend. 35. B = v, " in- 
bisible ' ' = invisible ; v = b, " vocay ' ' = bouquet. 

36. "crocrets" = croquettes; " breakfuts " = breakfast ; "in- 
spensive ' ' = expensive ; ' ' f rough ' ' = through. 37. th = n, 

"buthy"= bunny; v = th, "wiv"= with; b = p, "abble" = 
apple; "bie" = pie; " billow " = pillow ; g = k, " lugy " = lucky ; 
v = f, "voree = force; d = t, " wader "= water; "pimple" "pim- 
ble" and "bimble" are used interchangeably. This is pure per- 
versity, as the correct sounds can be made. 38. G = k, "twingle" 
= twinkle ; ' ' gandy ' ' = candy ; d =t, " turdle " = turtl e ; " mu v - 
vid" = muffet; b = p, "hair bin" = hair pin ;" higher " = pic- 
ture ; ' ' f rough ' ' = through ; f row ' ' = throw. ' ' Moicey, " " micey, ' ' 
"moizey," "mizey" and "boicey" are all used interchangeably. 
Special delight is taken in voicing the unvoiced mutes. Pure 
perversity seems the only explanation of many of these errors, as 
G. frequently refuses to give the correct forms when admonished, 
but at other times corrects the mistakes. "Another" and "filthy" 
can be correctly sounded. 39. G is added where it does not 
belong, as, "muvving" = muffin. 45. " AboiF ' ^ apple ; "giz- 
zy " == dizzy ; ' ' shubel ' ' = shovel. 46. ' ' Ecept ' ' = except ; 

"quuller" = cruller. 47. " Buther " = butter ; "rinch" = 
rinse ; ' ' porkant ' ' = important ; ' ' besept ' ' = except. 48. ' ' Pur- 
tend" = pretend; "ged" = get. 49. "Besturb" = disturb. 
52. ' ' Purty ' ' = pretty. 53. ' ' Gum ' ' = come, 54. ' ' Gwink of 
wather" = drink of water. 55. "Besept" and "except" both 
are used. 57. "Dink", "gink" and "drink" are all used. 

(58) "Popet" = pulpit. (59) " Consilitis " = tonsilitis. 
(61) "Corter" = quarter. (70) "Lue pig" = little pig; in 
this case the uralauted sound is made. "Ul" also is used for 
little. "Easer" and Easter" are both used, also "boomies" and 

34 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS. 

' ' bloomers. " ( 72 ) " Clob-hopper ' ' = clod-hopper ; ' ' medals ' ' = 
pedals. No amount of persuasion, suggestion, coaxing or command 
seems to have any effect on these mispronunciations. A diflficult 
form, like "ayabo" (31), seems preferred to the easier elbow. 
JMany similar instances occur. 

From the 30th month there is a growing tendency to employ 
repetitions, as, "lammie, lammie," alliterations, as, "dumb 
deezer" for dumb geezer, rhyming expressions, as, "doggie, pog- 
gie, woggie, ' ' and to use baby talk and a pronounced drawl. When 
G. is angry she employs a jargon of almost inarticulate sounds. 
Often when playing by herself, she will babble by the hour, mixing 
in occasionally some articulate words and sentences. This babbling 
decreased when she had not seen a baby for a long time. She takes 
delight in endless repetitions of verses, stanzas or nonsense. 
Adenoids, which were removed in the 81st month, may have had 
some effect on her speech, as they certainly did on her hearing. 



NOUXS 



In earliest speech the parts of speech are not differentiated. 
The same word or root seems to be used in more than onC; sense. 
With the evolution of the grammatically correct sentence this 
confusion tends to disappear, though many words retain the force 
of noun, adjective, adverb or verb at different times. The earliest 
nouns recognizable as such usually have the diminutive ie, as, 
doggie. 20. The earliest noticed counting of objects was "two 
dolly", repeated several times. G. would point to objects as 
these were counted by some one else. 22. Visits made by G. 
introduce new words, especially proper nouns. 29. Association 
with young children stimulates to conversation and increase of 
vocabulary. G. is often asked to tell the names of objects, so she 
often says voluntarily, "I'll tell papa what that is." She calls 
a bicycle pump a "bio win' thing." 31. to 34. She delights in 

35 



SPEECH DEVELOPMENT. 

repetitions, as, "doggie, poggie, woggie;" "dolly, polly, welly;'' 
"spooly, booly, wooly;" "bunny, wunny." Such expressions 
seem to be used for the enjoyment of the sound. A word or topic 
will be taken as a theme and will be repeated endlessly and tire- 
lessly in the same form or with variations. The regular plural is 
now grasped, as shown by its use in the case of irregular nouns; 
"There were two mans tacking." Also shown (36) by pluraliz- 
ing the adverb instead of the noun, as, "They got their hat ons," 
for hats on. 37. " Womans " = women. 49. "childs"= chil- 
dren ; 64. reindeers. 

Many abbreviated forms are used (37) probably less from 
laziness than perversity, as, ' ' straw ' ' = strawberry ; ' ' vin ' ' = 
vinegar; "po"== potato; " rasp " = raspberry ; "little Red" = 
little Red-ridinghood ; " high " = high-chair, etc. This common 
habit continues for months. 40. G. is inclined also to abbreviate 
sentences. 

38. Her great desire is to have names for objects. 48. If 
names are not known compound nouns are often invented to supply 
the need, as, ' ' cut-grasser ' ' = sickle ; 49. " light-lamper ' ' = lamp- 
lighter. 54. G. now uses the names of the days of the week. 



VERBS 

Verbs are a great stumbling block to the child. Tenses are 
often mixed, particularly in the irregular verbs, as, "How are you 
been?" This appears to be one of the child's greatest difficulties 
in learning to talk. A regular form is learned, only to find that 
in the most commonly used verbs it is not employed. Then, having 
mastered the irregular principal parts of a verb, the child finds 
that these do not fit regular or still other irregular verbs. Hence 
endless confusion results for months and even years, until imita- 
tion and habit have fixed the correct forms into automatic acts. 
The changes in verb endings are another, though a smaller diifi- 

36 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS. 

culty. "I knows," by analogy, from he knows. At first irregular 
verbs are given regular forms; later, irregular forms are con- 
structed by analogy with other irregular verbs already learned. 
By the mistakes children make in words and sentences, we may 
often obtain clues to the progress of their mental development. 
The child, as well as the race, tries to simplify language, to get rid 
of irregularities and establish a rational basis for grammar. Much 
of the bad grammar we hear among the uneducated is dnie to this 
tendency, notably the use of the objective case after forms of the 
verb be. 

Some errors follow: 30. ''It's all wind" (wound). 33. 
camin '" = coming ; " writed "== wrote. 36. "Goed" = went; 
"must leave" = must let; "were I?" = was I? 37. "Dagged" 
= dug ; ' ' lied ' ' = lay. 39. ' ' Brang ' ' = brouglit ; ' ' You oughtn 't 
to'v doin' that." 40. "Tooking" == taking; "thinked" = 
thought ; ' ' lied down ' ' = lay down ; ' ' buy ed ' ' = bought. 41. 
' * threwn ' ' == thrown ; ' ' caughting ' ' = catching ; ' ' hidded ' ' = hid- 
den; "weared" = worn; "bited" = bit. 44. "Grinded" = 
ground; " knowed " = kne w. 45. " Spended " = spent ; "blowed" 
== blew ; * ' tooken ' ' = taken ; ' ' stanged, " " stinged ' ' == stung ; 
" readed "=read ; " spitted "=spit; "writed"= wrote; "bringed" 
=brought. 47. "Dranked"== drunk; "has been bite"=has been 
bitten. 48. "Hadn't sain" (said); "undoed" = undid; "aten" 
= eaten ; ' ' sewn ' ' = sewed. 49. ' * Beated ' ' = beat. 50. ' ' Gaven ' ' 
= given; "hurted" = hurt. 51. "Ought not to have breaken" 
(broken). 52. "I haven't maken it yet;" "wroten" == written. 
53. "Bettern't I?" = Would I better not? "builded" = built; 
"drawed" = drew .54. "Leave me alone" (let). 56. "dreuve 
= drove. 57. * ' Swang ' ' = swung ; ' ' teached ' ' = taught. 64. 
"Lie her down "== lay her down. 65. "Dag" = dig. Many 
other irregular forms are used in place of regular, even after this 
time, but no further record was made of coined regular forms. 

A few words or sentences follow showing the development of 
grammatical appreciation. 44. "I don't say brang any more: 

37 



SPEECH DEVELOPMENT, 

I say brought." 47. Some one said "I done." G. at once said, 
''You shouldn't say done; you should say did." 52. G. used the 
word "thinked," but at once, without prompting, changed it to 
thought." 63. "Be" was incorrectly used, and at once changed 
to the correct form "are." 65. "Lied" was at once changed to 
"lay." 

The imperative is the first recognizable attempt at a verb. 
9. " Ha" (hark) is much used, but is hardly distinguishable in 
early speech from an exclamation. Many imperatives are correctly 
used almost from the beginning of articulate speech. The infini- 
tive is more difficult. 31. "I want see." for "I want to see." 
But it is often correctly used. 34. "She ought not to get fat.'' 
"She have (will have) to light a lamp." The subjunctive appears 
in such sentences as ; 24. "Kitty might bite." 34. "She ought 
not to get fat." 

The singular and plural forms are often mixed, as, 29. "Come 
in here where G. are." 31. "I hasn't." "I doesn't." .33. "1 
wants." "I has." 35. "I were." 36. "Were I?" = Was I? 

An object is often described in terms of its action, as, 24. a 
bicycle pump is called a "bio win' thing." 43. "Weigher" is 
used in speaking of a scale. 

35. G. frequently repeats a thing said by one person, chang- 
ing all forms from first to third person, and usually making them 
grammatically correct. 

Attempts at sentences are found as early as 13. "Papa go 
cool (school)." "Doggie cryin'." By the 20th month frequent 
short and usually imperfect sentences are used. 29. Sentences 
are now longer and grammatically complete, as, "Don't that beat 
the Dickens?" 

Contractions occur early, 19. "That's the way." 31. "I 
hasn't;" "I doesn't." 33. "I wants;" "I has." The verb is 
often thus contracted with a subject or an abverb. This contrac- 
tion usually follows, in point of time, the use of the full grammati- 
cal form. 35. "Don't." 39. "You oughtn't to'v dmn' that." 

38 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS. 
ADJECTIVES 



As with nouns and other parts of speech, adjectives are not 
well differentiated until the sentence begins to assume grammatical 
form. Many expressions are used as both nouns and adjectives, 
or adjectives and adverbs interchangeably. The word pretty, 
used as early as the twelfth month, and probably before, is the iirst 
clearly and distinctly articulated word, but it was several months 
before it was indisputably used as an adjective. 

20. Counting was observed when G. placed two dolls together 
and said repeatedly, "Two dolly.". In this month when some one 
counted each of three little girls in a picture, G. would point to one 
after another as if counting, but did not say the words. The words 
three, four, five are recorded in the 21st month, six and eight in 
the 25th ; seven, nine and ten in the 29th. The idea of plurality 
is shown, 24. by "Lots of tomachs" (stomachs,) and G, can cer- 
tainly count two. During the third and fourth years G. practices 
counting objects, and about the 48th month can count to twenty, 
by the 64th month she can count 20 objects and say the words in 
order to one hundred. 

24. G. drank some lemonade and said, "Very sour." 30. 
"AVarmy is used for warm by analogy with nouns having the 
diminutive ending. Comparison causes difficulty. The attempt 
to use the regular forms frequently results in double comparison or 
in the wrong form, as, "beautifuller" in the 32nd month, "most 
cleanest," in 43rd, "more warmer," 54th, "more hard," 69th, 
patienter," 71st. Adverbs and adjectives are long confused, as, 
82. ' ' possible ' ' = possibly. 

Some rather abstract ideas are expressed, as, 39. "invisible," 
41. "portant, " "porkant," (important), are used correctly in 
sentences. 55. "Purty" for pretty is a good illustration of de- 
terioration, as this was the first word perfectly articulated. 

39 



SPEECH DEVELOPMENT. 
ADVERBS. 

The first adverb recorded is no, in the 13th month. It is 
much oftener used than yes, which seldom is used before the 34th 
month. Before this time a question is answered by repeating the 
entire question in statement form. In the 36th month the grunt- 
ing noise, "uh, uh," is taking the place of yes; it has almost dis- 
placed yes in the 37th month, though great effort was made to 
combat the practice. About the same time the colloquial substitute 
for no, "ung, ung," appears and largely takes its place. The 
double negative was observed in the 45th month, "I won't eat no 
more," an error probably never heard by G. 

31. "Why (what) did you do that for?" shows confusion of 
adverb and pronoun. Among early adverbs used are, "Leave the 
door open." "He had to bind it up." 50. Such adverbs as, 
"simply," and "absolutely," are correctly used in sentences. In 
the sixth year G. developed the habit of prefixing "why" to state- 
ments. No amount of correction has served to abate this error. 
It is very hard to combat a mistake which requires a negative 
rather than a positive command. 



PRONOUNS. 



Next to verbs, pronouns (41:308) probably cause children 
most trouble to use correctly (76:178). Persons and gendenrs are 
more troublesome than number (88:13). The personal pronouns 
are fairly well sued by the 29th month, "They fit on me," though 
the relatives are still confused, (29) "Who's his name?" (15:69). 

A list of the pronouns recorded with the month in which each 
was noticed (32:71); (55:436). 

40 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS. 



I (21 you (30) 

my 21) your (30) 

mine (21) yours (34) 

me (13) 

we (22) 

our (30) 

ours (*) 

us (*) 

myself (30) yourself (*) 

itself (*) ourselves (*) 

who (20) whose (*) 

which (31) whom (*) 

what (22) 

that (21) 



he (29) she (30) 

his (29) hers (*) 

him (22) her (29) 

they (29) 
their (30) 
theirs (*) 
them (29) 

himself (29) herself (29) 

this (21) 
these (29) 
those (29) 



it (22) 
its (30) 



Though most, if not all the starred (*) forms were used al- 
most certainly by G. during the period of observation, it happens 
that no record was taken which contains these words. The recorded 
vocabulary is a minimum : the maximum, if known would probably 
run up the total of recorded^ words by a good percentage. 

29. "He's sick in her froat (throat)" was at once spontan- 
eously corrected to his froat. A sentence was begun, "Your 
finger," but at once spontaneously changed to the proper form, 
my finger. 

The correct use of the third person generally precedes that of 
the first and second persons. The second is often used incorrectly 
in place of the first, "Mamma, rockabye you." Often the first 
person is confused with the second or third in the same sentence. 
Special pains were taken to teach the correct forms but they ap- 
peared nevertheless to be puzzling (8:144). 

Cases present less difficulty (29) than gender and person. I 
and me are usually correctly used. (30) "We'll have herself" 
(ourselves), but "I'm shaving myself," (formerly, 'herself.') 

(31) The distinction between first and second person is now 
fairly well made. "What's my name?" in response to the ques- 

41 



SPEECH DEVELOPMENT. 

tion, "What's your name?" "Girl got mark on his nose," shows 
confusion of gender, which is not always well distinguished. Her- 
self is still used for himself. The second person is now fairly well 
distinguished (31:599). 

Singular and plural in the case of relatives is not discrimin- 
ated; "Those vocabulary." (34) Few mistakes occur now among 
personal pronouns. Cases are usually correct. Relatives still 
trouble som;€; "These sort wouldn't." 

(36) "You and me" (you and I). 

(38) No errors recorded. 

(46) "Of I" = of me; probably due to analogy. 

(47) When a test was made by saying to G. "Shave herself," 
she said, ' ' You mustn 't say her ; say shave myself. ' ' 

(50) "Is that him?," a case of objective after forms of the 
verb be by analogy, showing that him is recognized as the correct 
form for the object of a verb. Such mistakes as this show that a 
child is using reasoning power and applying things already learned 
to new uses. The correct use of pronouns is one of the most diffi- 
cult features of English for the child to master. These difficulties 
are nearly conquered before the end of the fifth year. 



OTHER PARTS OF SPEECH. 

Thirty-three prepositions are recorded, most of them in the 
last three years. A few are compound; "I can reacli from up 
there." 

The articles were first recorded as follows: (19) the; (25) a; 
(29) an, (48:129). After the 30th month the distinction between 
"a" and "an" is correctly made. 

Interjections (31:598) and exclamatory words are hardly dis- 
tinguishable at first from other parts of speech. (20) "My oh 
me!" "hark, boy!" (when a boy outside was whistling). As 
grammatical sentences develop, the parts of speech are differen- 
tiated (17:65.) 

42 



TOPICAL ANALYSIS. 

SENTENCES. 

Single words may be abbreviated sentences (8:141). With 
children and the race the sentence precedes words. (16 :294). Ges- 
tures may take the place of sentences (41 :303). But to elaborate a 
complete grammatical sentence is a later process and a higher act 
of mind than to use single words (1:414). Word order is deter- 
mined by necessity rather than by logic (8:145). 

The first noted attempts made by G. to form sentences are 
recorded in the 18th month : "Papa go cool" (school). "Arm, 
cut, cut." "Chickie says, 'Peep, peep.' " 

29. Usually a question must be repeated several times before 
it is answered, and the answer, when given, comes after much 
deliberation if there is any indecision or perversity. 36. Formerly 
questions were usually repeated in the answer, but now they are 
usually answered by yes or no, or in some other short way 
(48:130). These observations seem to prove that the unit of 
thought, for the child, at least, is the sentence, rather than the 
word. The sentence may be intelligent or intelligible even when 
the meaning of one or more component words is hazy (32 :38). 



ELISIONS AND OMISSIONS. 

Initial and final letters (sounds) are often omitted in early 
stages because of difficulty; later, as a result of imitation, laziness 
or perversity, 18. "no" (snow). 29. Final g of ing is usually 
elided, except in words of one syllable. Long words, as vocabulary, 
are usually abreviated in some way, not always the same, as, 
"cabus," "cabelary," "vo," etc.; "pempernt (peppermint); 37. 
"high" (high chair); "po" (potato); "cin" (cinnamo^ bun). 
Such forms are largely decayed forms, derived from earlier correct 
forms. 38. "Comf table" (comfortable). 70. "Noceros" 
(rhinoceros). 

43 



SPEECH DEVELOPMENT. 

Phonetic decay by abbreviation at the beginning or end of a 
word is shown in Teutaryan speech (6:805). 

The common provincial slurring of tinal syllables and the 
weakening of unaccented vowels was quickly imitated when heard 
by G., although she often noticed and corrected errors of gram- 
mar and enunciation committed by others, as, 48. "You shouldn't 
say done; you should say did." "Jessie says dink of water; Gr. 
can say drink of water." 34. "Preston says brack pomy for 
black pony. ' ' 

Many Dutch expressions were picked up from playmates when 
on visits, as, 39. "I want down" (to go down) ; "Let's look in the 
enlope once. ' ' These were never heard at home, but were retained 
for a long time in spite of all attempts to eradicate them. 

G's enunciation was excellent about the thirtieth month, but 
after this it began to deteriorate, and became so much poorer a 
year later as to be remarked by every acquaintance (23:111). 

SELF CONSCIOUSNESS. 

A child could not be the subject of observation and experiment 
for so many years without becoming self conscious (15:61). This 
is shown by the attitude and the remarks on many occasions. 
(31) "I must write in my vocabulary." (38) "Are you writ- 
ing my name?" (45) Curiosity is frequently shown as to the 
records made: "Papa's writing down my words." G. obtained a 
small book and after looking intently for a time at her doll, said, 
"She said something," and pretended to Avrite it in the book. 
(46) While records were being made G. said, "I'm just saying that 
for fun." (64) "Are you writing in it because I'm talking?" 
(67) Self -consciousness often takes the form of reluctance to say 
things for record, "Here don't you write that down!" or a ten- 
dency to nonsensical combinations of Avords or sounds. ( 69 ) " Now 
is the time I want you to write just what I say." (71) The dis- 
inclination to talk for record purposes grows and often proves a 
bar to obtaining adequate records. "Why are you writing in my 
vo ? " " I 'd better talk an awful lot. ' ' 

44 



Summary 



One may not generalize from the results of a single experi- 
ment, but these results may serve as a cheek upon those derived by 
an entirely different method of procedure, or vs^here the records 
have not extended over so long a time. Tracy (83a:126) gives a 
tabulation of 5400 words recorded in the case of an experiment 
made upon 25 school children. This shows that 60% were nouns, 
20% verbs, 9% adjectives and 5% adverbs. A comparison is made 
with the English language which has 60% nouns, 11% verbs, 22% 
adjective and 5% adverbs. G. has 61% nouns, 20% verbs, 
11% adjectives and 3.9% adverbs. Other investigations show 
similar proportions (48:130), (10:163). 

If the six year old child has a vocabulary of 3,000, or even 
1,000 words, it is unnecessary to limit the first reader to so scant a 
vocabulary as 200 words, as is sometimes advocated. 

Gale says that the guesses of philologists are ridiculously small 
(22 :277). "When will makers of primers for six year old children 
cease to construct their books as though meant for babies of 18 
months, as to range of thought and vocabulary." 

Taylor considers (79:87) "that the knowledge and the vocab- 
ulary of a child grow at approximately the same rate, revealing 
the function of language in language-getting." Doran (18:431) 
adds, "The child's words are stepping stones to knowledge, and 
represent the ability to get knowledge, whether or not they 
represent so much knowledge. From this we may be justified in 
concluding that the teacher should consider the facility of language 
of the child an important criterion for promotion, particularly in 
the primary grades." 

Doran (18:402) summarizes the results of available studies of 
children's vocabulary and believes that these are usually larger 
than generally supposed. He mentions one girl (18:404) who was 

45 



SPEECH DEVELOPMENT. 

estimated at the age of two years to know from 4,000 to 5,000 
words, and who actually proved to a committee that she knew at 
least 2,500 nouns. 

Most of the words used by G. have been learned incidentally 
by her without special effort to give her an abnormally large vocab- 
ulary. If such effort were made no doubt the number of words 
used could have been materially increased; especially in the case of 
concrete nouns. Unquestionably these experiments have tended to 
increase her vocabulary in an indirect way. She frequently would 
say, "I'll tell papa what that is," pointing to some object. Later, 
when self consciousness had developed, she would often refuse to 
say anything for record. These experiments on vocabulary as well 
as others made upon number ideas indicate that a child, if given 
the opportunity, will learn just about as fast as the normal devel- 
opment of the brain will allow, and that any effort to force the 
child beyond its capacity will be futile. In the case of the number 
experiments persistent efforts were made to teach certain things, 
but without success. 

Very little baby talk has been used (8:123), and the enuncia- 
tion has been good, when pains have been taken to correct errors, 
up to nearly the thirty-sixth month. When parents adopt or 
encourage baby talk, it may serve to fix this in the child's vocabu- 
lary and cause at least a temporary retardation. About the thirty- 
sixth month a marked deterioration in enunciation began in spite 
of all efforts to prevent. This had not disappeared when the 
seventy-second month arrived and the records ceased. Now in the 
112th month the enunciation has become nearly, if not quite 
normal again, though there is still noticed a tendency to baby talk 
whenever there is a baby or very young child' around. 

This record deals only with such words as are used spontan- 
eously by the child. Direct imitation and physiological memory 
have been excluded in recording words. Even this is artificial, 
for this investigation certainly shows that the unit of thought is 
not the word but the sentence (84:129). The sentence precedes 
the word with the child and race (8:143). Single words may be 

46 



SUMMARY. 

abbreviated sentences (8:141). It is to be expected that some 
words, particularly nouns, will be better understood than others 
(32:53), as abstract or relational terms, yet these are frequently 
and quite correctly employed, as is shown in many sample sentences 
given. With children as with adults, no doubt many words are 
used in the spoken vocabulary which are not completely understood 
(22:422), but it is difficult, if not impossible, to discriminate in 
every case (32:53). In certain instances words, seemingly far 
beyond the understanding of the child, are used with accuracy. To 
exclude words that have fallen into disuse would be very difficult, 
also. We cannot tell when the word might reappear after lying 
dormant weeks or months. This is especially true of nouns, as 
names of people or places, as is shown in more than one instance 
in this investigation. Words of nursery rhymes are included when 
the thought seems to be understood. The effort to determine 
whether a child understands the meaning of a word frequently 
results in teaching the meaning. 

G. was not precocious (13:51), but rather slow in learning to 
talk, when compared with some other children of her age. But 
she made fairly rapid progress when she was well started, and by 
the thirtieth month she had probably as well equipped a vocabu- 
lary as most children of that age (7:904). In the thirty -eighth 
month almost any word could be remembered as the name of some 
object ; not so easily if not connected with some concrete thing 
(32:113). The child's great desire seems to be to have thiiigs 
named, to know "what it is," and a name, even if meaningless, 
seems to satisfy the child, temporarily, at least. Now, at nine 
and one-half years, she is in the fourth school year and is especially 
good in reading. 

The records show that, during the period of observation, at 
least 3,384 words were used (17:63), (67:257), (10:160); that 
88.47% of these were of Saxon origin (14:14), 10.19% of foreign, 
chiefly Latin, origin, and 1.33% were inventions (42:67); that 
61.07% were nouns (48:130), 20.01% verbs, 11.82% adjectives. 
3.9%adverbs, and the remainder, 3.2% were distributed among the 

47 



SPEECH DEVELOPMENT. 

other parts of speech; that 7.74% were proper nouns, 12.03% com- 
pound nouns and 4.16% mispronounced words, that is, words wlucU 
evidently could not be correctly pronounced (67:257). 

No was learned early, at least by the 21st month (10:264). 
Yes was used later, hardly before the 34th month. There was no 
trouble with the pronunciation, she simply seemed to have no use 
for the word. 

Next to irregular verbs, pronouns were the greatest difficulty. 
Cases of pronouns seemed easiest, numbers harder, and persons and 
genders hardest. The forms of inflection of verbs are learned, at 
first, as individual cases, and some time elapses before similar forms 
are built up by analogy, when, naturally many mistakes are made 
with irregular verbs (31:597). We can judge of the progress of 
the child's mental growth by these mistakes (51:45). The child's 
instinct is to simplify forms, to get rid of irregularities (84:133), 
though many errors seem due to the child's enjoyment in peculiar 
forms, power of invention, imitation, and to habit due to a former 
lack of power. 



48 



Bibliography 



Only those authors and titles have been included which have 
some bearing on the development of speech within the period of 
this investigation — the beginning of articulate speech to the end of 
the sixth year. Much more extensive bibliographies exist in several 
of the works which follow. Annual bibliographies are found in 
the "Pedagogical Seminary" and the "Psychological Review" as 
well as in several works specially mentioned for this reason in the 
list which follows, nearly all of whose titles may be found in these 
more complete bibliographies. 

Titles of books or articles are in quotation marks. Pages es- 
pecially referred to are in parentheses. 

1. ADAMS, CEC. 

"Hindrances to Development of Language." 
Proceedings, N. E. A., 1902, (412-417.) 

2. ALLAIRE, D. 

"Des Premiers Rudiments du Langage Infantin." 
Bulletin Soc. d' Anthr. de Paris, 1884, pages 
(484-490.) 

3. AMENT, W. 

"Begriff und Begriffe der Kindersprache. " 

Sammlung von Abhandlungen aus dem Gebiete 
Paed., Psych., Phys. Vol. 4; (85.) 

4. ANIENT, W. 

"Die Entwicklung von Sprechen und Denken beim 
Kinde." Leipzig, 1899; (38, 40, 42, 58, 63, 
158, 211.) S. 213. 

49 



SPEECH DEVELOPMENT. 



5. BRYAN, W. L. 

"Suggestions on Study of Children." 

Transactions, 111. Society for Child Study ; 1894 ; 
Vol. I, (64.) A valuable bibliography. 

6. BUCKMAN, S. S. 

"Speech of Child'ren." 

Nineteenth Century, 1897; Vol. 41, pp (793-807.) 

7. CHAILLE, S. E. 

"Infants, Their Chronological Progress." 

New Orleans Medical and Surgical Journal." 
June, 1887; (893-912.) 

8. CHAMBERLAIN, A. F. 

"The Child." 123. Bibliography, (465.) 

9. CHAMBERLAIN, A. F. 

"Child and Childhood in Folk-thought." 

Macmillan, 1895. (260-269.) Long biblio- 
ography (405-434.) 

10. CHAMBERLAIN, A. F. 

"Studies of a Child." 

Pedagogical Seminary, September and December, 
1904; Vol. II. (264-292; 452-483.) 

11. CHAMPNEYS, F. H. 

"Notes on an Infant." 
Mind; Vol. 6; (104.) 

12. CHRISMAN, 0. 

"One Year With a Little Girl." 

Educational Review, Vol. 9, 52-71. (61.) 

50 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

.13. COLLINS, JOS. 

"Genesis and Dissolution of the Faculty of Speech." 
(40-85.) 

14. CONRADI. 

"Development of Speech." 

Pedagogical Seminary, September, 1904; Vol. 11; 
No. 3. A good bibliography. 

15. CROMWELL, A. D. 

"Language of the Child and Race." 

Child Study Monthly, 1900, Vol. 6 (69.) 

16. DARWIN, C. 

"Sketch of an Infant." 

Mind 1877, Vol. 2, 285-294. (293.) 

17. DEWEY, JOHN 

"Psychology of Infant Language." 

Psychological Review; 1894; Vol. 1; (63.) 

18. DORAN, E. W. 

"A Study of Vocabularies." 

Pedagogical Seminary, Dec, 1907; Vol. 14; 438. 

19. ERDMANN, B. 

"Die Psych. Grundlagen der Beziehung zwischen 

Sprechen und Denken." 
Arch, fuer Syst. Philosophie. 1896; 355-416. 

1897; 150-173. 1901; 147-176; 316-371; 

439-474. 

20. FRIEDRICH, G. 

" Psychologisehe Beobachtungen an 2 Knaben." 

Beitrage zur Kinderforschung und Heilerzie- 
hung; 1906, Heft 17, 43-59. (45.) 

51 



SPEECH DEVELOPMENT. 



21. FRENZEL, FR. 

"Stufen in der Sprachentwieklung des Kindes." 

Kinderfehler, 1902; Vol. 7; 25-33; 74-82. (26.) 

22. GALE, M. C. and H. 

"Vocabularies of Three Children at Two and Three 

Years." 
Pedagogical Seminary, 1902; Vol. 9; 422-435. 

23. GUTZIMANN, A. 

''Care of Speech of the Child." 

Association Review, April, 1902, Vol. 4, 107. 

24. GUTZMANN, H. 

"Des Kindes Sprache und Sprachf ehler. " 

Leipzig, 1894; pp. 261 (18, 19, 22, 32, 58, 65.) 

25. GUTZMANN, H. 

"Die Sprachlaute des Kindes und der Natur 
Voelker." 
Zeitschrift fuer P. P. und P. Hygiene, 1899, Vol. 1; 
28-40. (28, 31.) 

26. GUTZMANN, H. 

"Die Sprachliche Entwickelung des Kindes." 

Kinderfehler, 1902, Vol. 7; 193-216. (198, 201.) 

27. HALE, H. 

"Development of Language." 

Proceedings, Canadian Institute, 1888; Vol. 6; 
92-134. (96.) 

52 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 



28. HALL, G. S. 

"Contents of Children's Mindis on Entering Schools." 
Pedagogical Seminary, Vol.1; 139-173. 

29. HALL, G. S. 

"Notes on the Study of Infants." 

Pedagogical Seminary, 1891; Vol. 1; 132-138. 
(133.) 

SO. HALL, G. S. and MANSFIELD, J. M. 

"Bibliography of Education." Heath, 1886. 

31. HALL, MRS. W. S. 

"First Five Hundred Days of a Child's Life." 

Child Study Monthly, 1896. Vol. 2; 330, 394, 
458, 522, 586. 

32. HOGAN, L. E. 

"A Study of a Child." 

Harper's, 1898; pp. 220. 

33. HUMPHREYS, M. W. 

"A Contribution to Infantile Linguistics." 

Trans. American Philological Association, 1880, 
Vol. 11 ; 5-17. 

34. IDELBERGER, H. 

"Hauptprobleme des Kiudes Sprachentwicke^ung. " 
Zeitschrift f. P. P. P. Hygiene, 1903. Vol. 5; 
241. 425. (289.) 

35. JASTROW, JOS. 

"The Psychological Study of Children." 

Educational Review, 1891. Vol. 1; 253-264. (263.) 

53 



SPEECH DEVELOPMENT. 



36. JEGI, J. I. 

"The Vocabulary of a Two Year Old Child." 

Child Study Monthly, January, 1901. Vol. 6; 
No. 7. 

87. KIRKPATRICK, E. A. 

''Fundamentals of Child Study." 

Macmillan, 1903; pp. 385. (221.) 

38. KUSSMAUL, A. 

"Stoerungen der Sprache." 

Leipzig, 1885 ; pp.288. (47,48.) 

39. LINDNER, G. A. 

"Aus dem Naturgarten der Kindersprache. " 
Leipzig, 1898, pp. 122. (24, 122.) 

40. LUKENS, H. T. 

"Preliminary Report on Learning Language." 
Pedagogical Seminary, June, 1896. 424-460. 
(425.) 

41. MAJOR, D. R. 

"First Steps in Mental Development." 
New York, 1906. (278-333.) 

42. MATEER. 

' ' Language. ' ' 

Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. 15; (63.) 

43. McDonald. 

"Experimental Study of Children." 

Report, Commissioner of Education, 1897-98. 
Extensive bibliography, pp. 1350-1390. 

54 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 



44. McLEISCH, MRS. A. 

"Observations on the Development of a Child." 

Trans. Illinois Society for Child Study. April 
1898. Vol. 3 ; 109-124. (120-124.) 

45. MERINGER, R. und MAYER,_K. 

"Versprechen und! Verlesen." 

Stuttgart, 1895; pp. 204. (71.) 

46. MESSER, A. 

"Kritische Untersuehungen ueber Denken, Sprechen 

und Sprachunterricht. ' ' 
Sammlung v. Abhandlungen, Paedagogischen Psych- 
ologic und Physiologic. 1900; III Band 51. (6.) 

47. MEUMANN, E. 

"Die Entstehung der Ersten Wordbedeutungen. " 
Leipzig, 1902. (69.) 

48. MOORE, MRS. K. 

"Mental Development of a Child." 

Psych. Review, Supplement, 1896. (115-145.) 

49. NAUSESTER, W. 

"Die Grammatische Form der Kindersprache. " 

Zeitschrift f. Paedagogiche Psychologic, 1906. 
Vol. 8 ; 214-233. 

50. NAUSESTER, W. 

"Das Kind und die Form der Sprache." 

Sammlung, Paedagogik, Psychologic, Physiologic, 
1904; (51.) 

55 



SPEECH DEVELOPMENT. 



51. NOBLE, E. 

"Child Speech." 

Education, 1888, Vol. 9 ; 44, 117, 188. 

52. OHLERT, A. 

"Studium der Sprachen." 

Sammlung, Paedagogik, Psychologie, Physiologic. 
2 Band, 7 Heft, pp. 50. (17.) 

53. OLTUSZEWSKI, W. 

"Die Geistige und Spraehliche Entwickelung des 
Kindes." 
Berlin, 1897. pp 43. (32, 43.) 

54. PEREZ, B. 

"First Three Years of Childhood." 

Kellogg, 1888, pp. 292. (234-262.) 

55. POLLOCK, F. 

"Infant's Progress in Language." 

Mind, 1878, Vol. 3, 392 ; 1881, Vol. 6, 436. 

56. POLLOCK, F. und SCHULTZE, F. 

"Die Sprache des Kindes." 

Mind, 1881, Vol. 6, (Old Series), 436. 

57. PREYER, W. (Trans, by H. W. Brown.) 

"Mind of the Child." 
Appleton, (211.) 

58. REPORT U. S. COM. EDUCATION, 1892-93.. 

"Bibliography of Child Study." 385-391. 

56 



BIBLIOGBAPEY. 

59. RUDE, A. 

" Psychologisehe Beobachtungen an einem Kinde. " 
Kinderfehler, 1903. Vol. 8; 26-28, 74-78, 123- 
129, 172-180. 

60. RZESNITZEK, E. 

"Zur Frage der Psyehisclien Entwickelung der 
Kindersprache. ' ' 
Breslau, 1899; pp. 35. (8, 18, 28.) 

61. SALISBURY, A. 

"A Child's Vocabulary." 

Educational Review, 1894. Vol. 7 ; 289. 

62. SANFORD, E. C. 

"Notes on Language of Children." 

Pedagogical Seminary, 1891. Vol. 1; 257-260. 

(257.) 

63. SCHAEDEL, E. 

"Das Sprechlernen unserer Kinder." 
Leipzig, 1905. pp. 132. 

64. SCHILLER, H. 

"Der Aufsatz in der Muttersprache. " 

Sammlung, Paedagogik, Psychologic, Physiologic. 
1900 ; 6 Band, 1 Heft, pp. 68. 
1902 ; 5 Band, 3 Heft. 

65. SCHLESINGER, E. 

"Ueber die Beziehung zwischen Schaedelgrosse und 
Sprachentwicklung. ' ' 
Breslau, 1902. 

57 



SPEECH DEVELOPMENT. 

66. SCHDLTZE. 

"Die Sprache des Kindes." 
Mind, Vol. 6 ; 436. 

67. SHINN, M. W. 

"The Biography of a Baby." 

Houghton, Mifflin, 1900. pp. 247. (225.) 

68. SHINN, M. W. 

"Notes on the Development of a Child." 

University of California Studies. Pt. 1 and 2. 

69. SIGISMUND, B. 

"Kind und Welt." 

Braunschweig, 1897. pp. 199. (68.) 

70. SOLDAN, L. F. 

"Record of Infant Life." 

See Tiedemann No. 81. "Vier Erste Jahre." 

71. STERN, C. and W. 

* ' Die Kindersprache. ' ' 

Leipzig, 1907. pp. 394. A full bibliography. 

72. STEVENSON, A. 

"The Speech of Children." 

Science, March, 1893; Vol. 21 ; 118. (120.) 

73. STIMPFL, J. Trans, by Hall, G. S. 

"Ausgewaehlte beitrage zur Kinderpsyehologie und 
Paedagogik." 1902. 

74. STRICKER, S. 

"Studien ueber die Sprachvorstellung. " 
Wien, 1880. pp. 106. (63.) 

58 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

75. STUMPF, C. 

" Eigenartige Spraehliche Entwiekelung eines 
Kindes." 

Zeitschrift f. P. P.P. Hygiene. 1901; Vol. 3; 
pp. 420-447. (422, 432, 446.) 

76. SULLY, J. 

''Children's Ways." (29-39.) 

77. SULLY, J. 

"Studies of Childhood." 

Good bibliography, pp. 515-517. (133-190.) 

78. TAINE, M. 

"Acquisition of Li^nguage by Children." 
Mind, 1877. Vol. 2; 252. (257.) 

79. TAYLOR, A. R. 

"Study of Children." 
Appleton, (84-92.) 

80. TIEDEMANN, D. 

"Beobachtungen ueber die Entwiekelung der Seelen- 
faehigkeit bei Kindern." 
Altenburg, 1897. pp. 56. (27.) 

81. TIEDEMANN, D. 

"Die Vier Ersten Jahre meiner Kinder." Trans, by 
Soldan, L, F., as "Record of Infant Life." 
Syracuse, 1890. pp. 46. (37.) 

82. TOEGEL, H. 

"16 Monate Kindersprache. " 

Kindterfehler, April, 1905. Vol. 10; 156-165. 
(162.) 

59 



SPEECH DEVELOPMENT. 

83. TRACY, F. 

"Psychology of Childhood." 

Heath, 1894. pp. 167. (114-160.) Biblio- 
graphy 162-167. 

83a. TRACY, F. 

"Language of Childhood." 

American Journal of Psychology. Vol. 6; 126. 

84. TRETTIEN, A. W. 

"Psychology of the Language Interest of Children." 
Pedagogical Seminary, June, 1904. Vol. 11; 13^ 
Valuable bibliography. 

85. WARNER, F. 

"The Nervous System of the Child." 
Macmillan Co. 



86. WARNER, F. 

"Study of Children." 

Macmillan Co. (114-120.) 



87. WHIPPLE, G. M. 

"Vocabulary of a Three Year Old Boy." 

Pedagogical Seminary, March, 1909. Vol. 16; 
1-22. 



88. WHITNEY, W. D. 

"Life and Growth of Language." 

Appleton, 1883. pp. 326. (12, 13, 26.) 



60 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

89. WILSON, L. N. 

'' Bibliography of Child Study." 

Pedagogical Seminary. 1898; p. 541, 1899 

p. 386: 1900; p. 526: 1901; p. 515: 1902 

p. 521: 1903; p. 514: 1904; p. 292: 1905 

p. 304: 1906; p. 374: 1907; p. 329: 1908 
p. 400. 

90. WOLFERT. 

'*Zur Entwicklung der Sprache des Kindes." 
Kinderfehler, 1901. Vol. 6; 176-181. 

91. WUNDT, W. 

' ' Voelker-Psyehologie. ' ' 

Leipzig, 1900. Pt. 1 ; pp. 627. Pt. 2 ; pp. 644. 
(289.) 



61 



LIBRftRY OF CONGRESS 



019 820 554 



il 



